Arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas essays

Arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas essays Arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas It is my third visit to the museum of Metropolitan art, this time we are focusing on the arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas. In the meantime the instructor gives important facts, and explanations about the purpose and meaning of the objects created. One of my favorites is the Pendant Mask: Iyoba from the Benin culture and its representation of power. First of all, this pendant mask was created by the Benin culture in Nigeria. The texture and the fine materials of the pendant specify that it was worn by a king on ceremonial occasions. It is believed that this object was created by the royal ivory carvers of the king. The main material used in this mask is Ivory, Iron and Copper. Furthermore the Ivory was made out of the elephant tusk which was highly prized, and it was a symbol of wealth and purity. In addition to the value the materials had, this mask also represents the influence the mother of the oba (king) had in the Benin society. Moreover, Idia was the mother and advisor to one of the most powerful leader of Benin, Esigie who ruled in the early sixteenth century. Esigie created this pendant to honor Idia for helping to secure his claim to the throne and for the wise counsel that she provided him throughout his reign. As a result of Idia's role, the title of Queen Mother (Iyoba) was introduced to the Benin court, granting the mother of the oba (king) equal authority to that of senior town chiefs. Furthermore, the mask also gives information about the ancient Benin society. For instance, the mask displays multiple figures, each one with a different meaning for example, the mudfish that line her head and collar. The mudfish is one of the most primary symbols of Benin Kingship. This creature was associated with the qualities of aggressiveness due to its electric stings and the ability to survive in water and on land as the Oba move through both earth and t...

Dolni Vestonice - Czech Republic Upper Paleolithic Site

Dolni Vestonice - Czech Republic Upper Paleolithic Site Definition: Dolnà ­ Vestonice (Dohlnee VEST-oh-neets-eh) is a large Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian) occupation, loaded with information about the technology, art, animal exploitation, site settlement patterns and human burial activities of 30,000 years ago. The site lies buried beneath a thick layer of loess, on the slopes of the Pavlov Hills above the Dyje river. The site is near the modern town of Brno in the region of Moravia in the eastern part of what is now the Czech Republic. Artifacts from Doln Vestonice The site has three separate parts (called in the literature DV1, DV2, and DV3), but all of them represent the same Gravettian occupation: they were named after the excavation trenches that were dug to investigate them. Among the features identified at Dolnà ­ Vestonice are hearths, possible structures, and human burials. One grave contains two men and one woman; a lithic tool workshop has also been identified. One grave of an adult woman contained burial goods, including several stone tools, five fox incisors and a mammoth scapula. In addition, a thin layer of red ochre was placed over the bones, indicating a specific burial ritual. Lithic tools from the site include distinctive Gravettian objects, such as backed points, blades and bladelets. Other artifacts recovered from Dolnà ­ Vestonice include mammoth ivory and bone battens, which have been interpreted as loom sticks, evidence of weaving during the Gravettian. Other important finds at Dolni Vestonice include fired-clay figurines, such as the venus illustrated above. Radiocarbon dates on the human remains and charcoal recovered from hearths range between 31,383-30,869 calibrated radiocarbon years before the present (cal BP). Archaeology at Doln Vestonice Discovered in 1922, Dolnà ­ Vestonice was first excavated during the first half of the 20th century. A salvage operation was undertaken in the 1980s, when borrowing of the soil for dam construction was eminent. Much of the original DV2 excavation was destroyed during the dam construction, but the operation which exposed additional Gravettian deposits in the region. Ivestigations in the 1990s were conducted by Petr Ã…  krdla of the Institute of Archaeology at Brno. These excavations continue as part of the Moravian Gate Project, an international project including the Centre for Palaeolithic and Palaeoethnological Research at the Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic and the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research at the University of Cambridge in the UK. Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Upper Paleolithic, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Beresford-Jones D, Taylor S, Paine C, Pryor A, Svoboda J, and Jones M. 2011. Rapid climate change in the Upper Palaeolithic: the record of charcoal conifer rings from the Gravettian site of Dolnà ­ Vestonice, Czech Republic. Quaternary Science Reviews 30(15-16):1948-1964. Formicola V. 2007. From the sunghir children to the Romito dwarf: Aspects of the Upper Paleolithic funerary landscape. Current Anthropology 48(3):446-452. Marciniak A. 2008. Europe, Central and Eastern. In: Pearsall DM, editor. Encyclopedia of Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p 1199-1210. Soffer O. 2004. Recovering Perishable Technologies through Use Wear on Tools: Preliminary Evidence for Upper Paleolithic Weaving and Net Making. Current Anthropology 45(3):407-424. Tomaskova S. 2003. Nationalism, local histories and the making of data in archaeology. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 9:485-507. Trinkaus E, and Jelinik J. 1997. Human remains from the Moravian Gravettian: the Dolnà ­ Vestonice 3 postcrania. Journal of Human Evolution 33:33–82. Also Known As: Grottes du Pape

How is the Enlightenment connected to the Scientific Revolution Essay

How is the Enlightenment connected to the Scientific Revolution - Essay Example People thought the globe was the midpoint of the cosmos (Bacon 1960). That meant that the moon, planets, and the sun revolved around the earth. Europeans used ideas based on the physical world while Romans and Greeks believed in the Bible. However, attitudes changed in the mid 1500. A spirit of curiosity gave rise to a scientific revolution (Burns 2003). Scholars were willing to question old ideas and the level of focus was improved with much observation. Europeans were leading in the exploration leading to discovery of new lands and the establishment of universities. Francis Bacon, an English writer, assisted in fostering this approach. He urged scientists to base their opinions on what they could see in the world (Bacon 1960). R. Descartes used mathematics and logic to exert his immense influence. In the mid 1600, Isaac Newton established the law of gravity. He used mathematics to show the law of gravity controlled the motion of the planets and objects on earth (Burns 2003). Paris became the European cultural center in 1700 (Oslar 2000) where people from the entire Europe gathered to new ideas about enlightenment. Marie Therese became popular for hosting and funding ideas on enlightenment. According to the letters by Isaac Newton, religion and uniqueness were necessary for innovation. In the letters, Newton said that the discovery came as a result of patient thought. The letters contained significant propositions but were imperfect in some parts. According to Isaac Newton, no matter how matter was scattered, it would be infinitely attracted towards the center (Hankins 1985). This meant that at the center there would have a particle that is attracted to all other particles at equal measure (Goodman 1973). This became known as a state of perfect equilibrium. According to the observations of the great instauration by Francis Bacon, human intellect is responsible for its own challenges and difficulties (Oslar 2000). Therefore, man should use the help at his dispo sal to address the difficulties that he faces. This exposed the levels of ignorance and the damage it causes to the quality of life. He argued that through human efforts and determination life can be restored to the perfect condition or reduced to better condition that it is now (Burns 2003). Mathematics and philosophy grew so rapidly that the two had to be separated (Sax 2001). The impact is still being felt today. Scientist came to know that observing and explaining would help them in discovering the natural laws. The scientific method became increasingly prominent (Portar 2001). The discovering had an impact on education in all levels. As more people trained in science and physics, technology advanced and new technologies were discovered. Enlightenment had unprecedented impact in the quality of life (Goodman 1973). Complicated farm machinery and textile industry were discovered causing scientific and the industrial revolution (Sax 2001). Scientific revolution sought a break from a religious and theological approach to life (Hankins 1985). In medieval times, society was largely governed by church views and traditions which discouraged open-mindedness (Oslar 2000). Enlightenment was a movement that challenged people to think and make independent decisions. Newton, Descartes and Priestly played a significant role in the discovery of sextants slide rule and

ETHICAL LEADERSHIP Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ETHICAL LEADERSHIP - Assignment Example However major problem with ethical leadership is that it is difficult to define that what is right. Ethical leadership is based on two components, first is that ethical leaders must act and make decisions that are considered to be ethical and second is that they should lead the people based on the ethical standards (Anon., 2014). Leaders know that what exactly they value. They are aware of the importance of ethical behavior. The successful leaders are known for exhibiting both their ethics as well as their values in their leadership actions and style. The leadership ethics and values should be visible in the leader’s actions every single day (Anon., 2014). Lack of trust is considered to be a major problem in many work places. If the leaders are unable to identify the value and ethics required at workplace the mistrust can be understandable. People are not exactly aware of what they can exactly expect. Workplace ethics may take the same route if the leaders of the organization have ethical expectations and code of conduct, however it may become a joke for the organization if the leaders may fail to live up to the codes published by the organization (Heathfield, 2014). One of the effective examples of ethical leadership that can be extracted from the fashion industry is of H&M, which is the global fashion leaders and is enforcing its effort to fulfill its corporate social responsibility in recent years. The mission of H&M is to offer fashion as well as quality at its best price. Quality as defined by H&M is to manufacture its product in a way that is environmentally and socially sustainable. This is why the company works in close collaboration with its stakeholders and suppliers to effectively fulfill its long term goals achieve sustainable environmental and social standards in the factories that are manufacturing their products and also in the operation of their other business partners. The code of conduct of H&M specifies

Project Appraisal in Transportation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Appraisal in Transportation - Essay Example This type of modeling involves 04-steps- trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and trip assignment. The ‘mode choice’ step of such models do not include slow & non-motorized modes like walking. End walks for taking a motorized mode (like bus) and again for physically reaching the destination (office, home, etc.) are not considered as part of traveling in this type of model. Thus, walking, perhaps the most eco-friendly, least expansive and also the oldest and the most conventional form of human movement or traveling finds no place in the conventional transport model. Another view is that this modeling system was developed for evaluating large scale infrastructure projects and not for more subtle and complex policies involving management and control of existing infrastructure or introduction of policies which directly influence travel behavior (TDM Encyclopedia, 2005). Conventional modeling tends to assume that transport progress is linear, with newer, faster mod es replacing older, slower modes (UCI-ITS-AS-WP-005). This series model assumes that the older modes are unimportant, and so, for example, there is no harm if walking conditions and transit service decline, provided that automobile ownership and vehicle traffic speeds increase. From this perspective, such models always find it undesirable to give walking priority over automobile travel. However, it is time that such drawbacks of conventional models are addressed and recently there have been a lot of developments in this direction. The conventional models are being functionally upgraded and their ability for considering slow modes like walking, bicycling, etc. can now be ensured by integrating such models with various sub-models. The conventional modeling approach is getting transformed to the more sophisticated and reliable integrated transport models where in walk-trips and walk-ability are very important considerations. The

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Introduction Separation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role. This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is worth noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts. General theory of affect Object relations theory Over time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing. The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environmen t results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother. Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others. With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy. Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition. In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medica l practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate. The drive theory This theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981). With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects. The Inter-subjective theory of affect This theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and i s instrumental in initiating social relationships. In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual. To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties. The affect theory Theorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991). With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991). In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity. Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery. Psychodynamic perspective on addiction This perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future; they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into ment al illness at later stages of the childs life. According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ul timate reflection of an abnormality in self organization. The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive. Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008). In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction. Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection. Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings. Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated. Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery; the patient is the one to make the ult imate choice regarding the recovery from addiction. Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed. Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts. Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse. Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration. The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived. In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders. Psychodynamic perspectives of mourning Mourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999). The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others. After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object. The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization. Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage. According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement. This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons. However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same. Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Introduction Separation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role. This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is worth noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts. General theory of affect Object relations theory Over time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing. The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environmen t results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother. Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others. With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy. Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition. In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medica l practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate. The drive theory This theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981). With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects. The Inter-subjective theory of affect This theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and i s instrumental in initiating social relationships. In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual. To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties. The affect theory Theorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991). With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991). In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity. Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery. Psychodynamic perspective on addiction This perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future; they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into ment al illness at later stages of the childs life. According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ul timate reflection of an abnormality in self organization. The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive. Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008). In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction. Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection. Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings. Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated. Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery; the patient is the one to make the ult imate choice regarding the recovery from addiction. Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed. Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts. Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse. Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration. The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived. In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders. Psychodynamic perspectives of mourning Mourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999). The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others. After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object. The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization. Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage. According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement. This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons. However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same. Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who

Being Eleven :: English Literature Essays

Being Eleven Yep! If you are reading this you’ve probably already conquered the tumultuous eleventh year of your life. However, if you are ancient you have probably forgotten all about being eleven, so here are the advantages and disadvantages. First of all, there are many advantages of being eleven. For instance my parents trust me more. My parents let me stay home alone instead of having a babysitter. They also let me go to movies without them leading me by the hand. My parents don’t act so paranoid about me staying in the yard to play. My next positive thing about being eleven is I can go more places with my friends. For example, I don't have to go to the family skate, I can go to the friday night skate with my friends. My parents can drop us off at the front of the movie theater and we can pick what movie to watch. I can also go to the mall with a group of my friends. My third positive reason is I can choose more sports or activities. For instance, I can play tackle football instead of touch or flag football. I have the choice to play girls basketball or softball. I can also go to the school dances. My final advantage is I have more privileges. I can enter better web sites such as www.bonus.com. I can have my own e-mail address instead of writing mail by hand. My parents let me stay on the phone longer. I can stay on for about an hour instead of thirty minutes. On the other hand, there are several disadvantages of being eleven. For example, I have more chores around the house. When I come home, I always have to do the dishes instead of playing. I also have to do the laundry at night on weekdays and weekends. I have to mow the lawn every time it grows. My next example is I have harsher punishments. When I get in trouble I am either grounded for a week or even two. I also have to do all the chores when I am grounded. Another thing is I can’t go outside, play on the play station or watch television. As another example, I don't get to vote. When election time comes I can’t have a say in who I want to run my country. Being Eleven :: English Literature Essays Being Eleven Yep! If you are reading this you’ve probably already conquered the tumultuous eleventh year of your life. However, if you are ancient you have probably forgotten all about being eleven, so here are the advantages and disadvantages. First of all, there are many advantages of being eleven. For instance my parents trust me more. My parents let me stay home alone instead of having a babysitter. They also let me go to movies without them leading me by the hand. My parents don’t act so paranoid about me staying in the yard to play. My next positive thing about being eleven is I can go more places with my friends. For example, I don't have to go to the family skate, I can go to the friday night skate with my friends. My parents can drop us off at the front of the movie theater and we can pick what movie to watch. I can also go to the mall with a group of my friends. My third positive reason is I can choose more sports or activities. For instance, I can play tackle football instead of touch or flag football. I have the choice to play girls basketball or softball. I can also go to the school dances. My final advantage is I have more privileges. I can enter better web sites such as www.bonus.com. I can have my own e-mail address instead of writing mail by hand. My parents let me stay on the phone longer. I can stay on for about an hour instead of thirty minutes. On the other hand, there are several disadvantages of being eleven. For example, I have more chores around the house. When I come home, I always have to do the dishes instead of playing. I also have to do the laundry at night on weekdays and weekends. I have to mow the lawn every time it grows. My next example is I have harsher punishments. When I get in trouble I am either grounded for a week or even two. I also have to do all the chores when I am grounded. Another thing is I can’t go outside, play on the play station or watch television. As another example, I don't get to vote. When election time comes I can’t have a say in who I want to run my country.

As Planes Get Bigger, the Marketplace Gets More Competitive

Q1: Have you, or anyone you know, experienced a situation similar to those described, where the marketing organization exceeded your service expectations? If so, what do you think of the company now? Yes, I have a experienced a situation that a marketing organization exceeded my service expectation. There was a catering firm in my hometown. Both the service and the taste of food were the best because of some good waiters and the top chefs, Whereas the price was relatively lower than other catering firms. As a result, it exceeded my expectation. I think that the catering firm has attracted more new customers because of its opprobrium now. Regular customer can come again because of good service and fine food. Q2. Do you think that any and every employee can be trained to want to give good service? If so, what form might that training take? If not, what should a company do if it encounters major resistance? Not every employee can be trained to want to give good service. To overcome major resistance, the marketing organization may change its strategy to raise the job satisfaction of the employee and increase the productivity. Organization should employ some people who like this job. In addition, employees who are not eligibility should be trained again. Q3. Do you believe that customers are becoming more demanding? If they are too demanding, what might be the outcome for marketing organization? Yes, I believe that customers are become more demanding because some consumers who are high-income earners and better educated are indulged in good service. Marketing organizations need to offer the better service for their consumers Therefore, employees should receive the best training to improve their service quality. Q4. Might marketing organizations be taking risks by raising customer expectations too high? Yes, marketing organizations may take risks when raising customer expectations. High expectations mean that marketing organizations would rise to the challenge to achieve the customer satisfaction. When marketing organizations cannot satisfy customers expect, the relationship between company and customer would break. As a result, marketing organizations may take risks.

Come With

Come With Come With Come With By Maeve Maddox â€Å"I’m going to the movies. Do you want to come with?† A reader in England has noticed that this elliptical use of â€Å"come with† on British television and doesn’t care for it: I find it to be an expression I prefer not to use, as it sounds grammatically wrong and very odd, even though, were I in Germany, I would automatically and happily use the equivalent expression Kommen sie mit. Do you know the age of the English Come with? There is an example in the OED of a 19th century elliptical use of with without an object: in slang use, in reference to liquor means mixed with sugar, having sugar added; usually in phrases hot or cold with. 1836  Ã‚   Dickens Sketches by Boz 1st Ser. I. 84  Ã‚   Two glasses of rum-and-water ‘warm with- ’. 1843  Ã‚   R. S. Surtees Handley Cross I. x. 202  Ã‚   Fatch me up a glass of cold sherry negus with. 1843  Ã‚   R. S. Surtees Handley Cross I. xv. 322  Ã‚   ‘Take a glass of brandy,’ said she ‘hot with? or cold without?’ Where did the modern usage originate? The reader’s mention of German â€Å"Kommen sie mit,† points to the answer. Large numbers of German, Norwegian, Swedish, and Dutch immigrants to the U.S. settled in the midwest, near the Great Lakes. â€Å"Kommen sie mit† migrated into the local English dialect. English is, after all, a Germanic language. Old English mid, meaning â€Å"with,† survived into Middle English and was sometimes spelled mit. Many American speakers dislike the usage as well: Why do people say, â€Å"Can I come with† and â€Å"Do you want to go with†? That â€Å"with† hanging on the end of the sentence has always driven me crazy. That reaction seems a bit extreme. My Chicago relations say it. I find it odd, but endearing. It is, however, a regionalism that has not acquired the status of standard English. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Examples of Passive Voice (And How To Fix Them)Between vs. In Between50 Synonyms for "Song"

Religion in Egypts Business

Religion in Egypts Business Egypt is an African state situated in the northern region of Africa and it has deep roots of its origin based on Islam. This country covers approximately 1010 000 square kilometers. The immediate neighbors of Egypt are Libya and Sudan. Cairo is the capital city of Egypt and it is home to half of Egypt’s population.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Religion in Egypts Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Nile River is Egypt’s soul source of water. Egypt has greatly utilized the Nile River by using the resource to irrigate its farms. In deed the area next to the river banks is densely populated because it’s the only place that can support crop life because of availability of adequate and reliable source of water. According to a study by Mohamed, Egypt values the Nile River more than the rest of its natural resources. Since river Nile originates from Kenya and Uganda it had to bar th ese countries from using the source of river Nile for irrigation purposes. According to a treaty signed by the countries that share the source of river Nile that is lake Victoria which is shared by Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, the three East African countries are allowed to fish from the lake but they can not use the water for irrigation because by doing so Egypt would run out of water. The pyramids and artifacts of Egypt create a great source of tourist attraction sites. Egypt is ranked among the most stable economies of Africa. This economic growth has been fostered by Egypt’s political stability and it’s ability to bait foreign investors. After the end of pharaonic era Egypt’s culture was remodeled to merge Christianity and Islam. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and is recognized as Egypt’s hub of education, business and civilization. Egyptians are appreciated for their contributions in architecture and art. They are the first people to use wall pai ntings for communication. These paintings were directed by the Pharaohs to deliver a certain message to their subjects. Organizations in Egypt are manned through hierarchical structures. Women in Egypt are prohibited from assuming management positions therefore men in Egypt have a higher bargaining power in management. When managers give their opinion or suggestion objections are unwelcome because by opposing a manager’s opinion implies lack of respect.Advertising Looking for research paper on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Okasha argues that businesses in Egypt are owned and managed by people who are related directly or indirectly such as brothers and cousins (165). When Egyptian managers are making critical decisions, they seek advice from their juniors but they are the ones who make the final decision and their juniors are expected to adhere to the manager’s decision. Even in the absence of the manager, the relatives of the said manager can not make a decision. They have to wait until the manager is present. It is common in Egypt for organizations to be assigned to dedicated religious administrators who check the organization’s compliance with Shari’ a law. It is against the Islamic law for institutions to have swollen profits. Therefore managers in Egypt must make sure that their institutions welfare are even with the welfare of the society (Dunn).This means that institutions must inject a portion of their proceeds into attending to matters concerned with improving the livelihood of their immediate communities. This Islamic law might not favor institutions because they might dedicate most of their finances to community projects just to appease their religious leaders. According to Islam every devoted Muslim must pray at least five times a day and hence work must come to a halt for employees to attend to these prayers. Religion seems to hinder producti vity of organizations in Egypt. Organizations are also expected to only hire employees who are Muslims. These restrictions may impact on performance of organizations because they may ignore employees who posses the relevant skills and abilities and instead consider the one who is devoted to Islam and yet he/she is not qualified for that position. Dunn, Jimmy. â€Å"Doing Business in Egypt.† Tour Egypt. 2010. Web. touregypt.net/egypt-info/magazine-mag09012000-magf3.htm Mohammed, Salmaway. Dialogues of Naquib Mahfouz: Mon Egypte’. Al-Ahram Weekly.18-16 August 2006Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Religion in Egypts Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Okasha, El-Daly. Egyptology: The Missing Millenium. London: UCL Press, 2005. Print

Economic opinion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economic opinion - Essay Example In the book it is concluded that owners of private equity reduce more jobs than the other firms, however, the net impact is minimal and following a private company taking over a firm, it their people who take over as directors who fare bad in terms of retention of jobs. Also according to the book, research shows that wages decrease in a span of two years following the private-equity buyouts even though there is an increase in productivity. This proposes that financial profits from high output are being changed into returns for owners instead of salary hits for the workers. Also, whereas some private-equity companies market themselves to be union friendly, some are unfriendly and still others are opposed (Weber 1). According to the authors of the book cited in the article, there are a number of things that distinguish the private-equity companies from those that are traded publicly. One is that such companies have great amounts of debts. Approximately, privately equity companies run with approximately 70 percent debt and 30 percent equity. This ratio is basically reversed by the public firms which has approximately 30 percent of to their capital from bonds, as well as other liabilities (Weber 1). The article also states that whereas the inventors in the public companies are mostly distinct from those who manage the company, the private-equity owners are the ones who manage the companies despite being the investors. This builds incentives for the owners manage the operational decisions for the short-term profits to the owners. Partly owing to this, the private-equity companies are most expected to file for liquidation as compared to the public companies, which result to notable loss of jobs at the individual firms (Weber 1). Private equity as a type of organization has its basis in venture capital. The type that is most common is the leveraged buyout (LBO) and this is the one that is under challenge. The

Answer my questions Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Answer my questions - Movie Review Example What are the effects of trade liberalization in Jamaica (e.g. discuss the effects of Jamaica’s free trade zones or the effects of the WTO on banana exports)? What was the effect of the IMF policies on domestic food production? In any country, the economy depends on the policies of its government. The public and private sector businesses are the main employment generation mechanisms in an economy. Market plays a key role in determining the unemployment rates of a country. If unemployment rates are low, spending power of the people increases and the market flourishes. However, if there is too much pressure on the government to generate employment in the public sector, the market becomes volatile and the risks of a sudden but complete stagnancy increase, as we have witnessed in the erstwhile USSR during the late 1980s. Liberalization is a process that would help an economy to overcome the risks of economic stagnancy mainly by the means of market reforms and privatization. However, the process of liberalization itself has come under scrutiny and criticism on several occasions. The episode of Life and Debt is based on such a critical perspective regarding liberalization in the backdrop of troubled Jamaican eco nomy. The process of liberalization in Jamaica practically began when the country signed a loan agreement with IMF in 1977. The process of acquiring debts began and more debts were taken to pay off the interests incurred in this course. Gradually, Jamaica had to liberalize its markets and industries under pressure from the lending agencies like IMF, IADB (Inter-American Development Bank), and the World Bank. The projected goals of increasing per capita income, literacy rate, employment, etc. in the country could not be achieved. The development that was promised by these loans did not take place as expected. But the economic pressure of a government almost running on debts began to affect the lives of the people negatively. In reality, the